Foreword

前言

Lynette J. CHUA，新加坡国立大学法学教授

I am honoured to be invited to write this foreword for the Asian Journal of Law & Society’s first special-themed issue on sex work. Since its launch in 2015, this Journal has published special-themed issues on subject matters important to Asian law and society scholarship, such as religion, development, legal education, and legal consciousness. This issue continues the tradition by featuring three articles about sex work based on research at three different Asian sites – Japan, Taiwan, and Nepal.

In “Beyond ‘Sex Work’: Japanese Night Work and ‘Shakai-Keiken’,” Aki Kurosawa focuses on “night work,” a type of sex work in Japan that revolves around drinking and conversing with clients. She collected interview and observational data to understand why college women enter this line of work, how they conceptualize the nature of “night work,” and what they gain from engaging in it.

In “Control of Commercial Sex in Taiwan: Observations from Gender and Legal Perspectives,” Carol Lin et al. analyzed legal documents, historical materials, as well as secondary literature to describe how sex work in Taiwan underwent stages of regulation and deregulation from the Qing dynasty up to the contemporary era. Later in the article, they propose an alternative legal model that they argue will better empower and protect sex workers.

In “Advocating Sex Workers’ Rights by Identity-Based Associations in Nepal,” Masako Tanaka examines secondary literature and reports to provide a survey of the legal status of sex work as well as the different types of sex work and sex workers in Nepal. She also draws from interviews with activists from two nonprofit organizations to describe contrasting approaches toward the rights of sex workers.

Although the three articles focus on details specific to their respective research sites and do not employ similar research methods, they illustrate a few common themes in law and society research on sex work. One is the expansive meaning of sex work – as defined (or not defined) by law and as characterized by sex workers, their customers, and others. The meaning of sex work can vary based on the type of services provided or based on the place of work, and thus intersect differently with state law as well as non-state law, such as societal norms and rules about sexual conduct and women’s sexuality. Sex work also means different things to sex workers, their customers, other actors involved in the trade, as well as activists and law enforcement. Hence, another theme is the persistent challenge of legality. The three articles show that sex workers, no matter where they are, face criminalization by state law, persecution by the authorities, or stigmatization by others in their societies.

From the themes about sex work’s variegated meanings and its persistent challenge with legality, the three articles can be linked to broader law and society research, even though the authors did not explicitly make such connections themselves. One area of research is the study of legal consciousness. All three articles allude to possibilities of studying how sex workers – or activists, in Tanaka’s case – understand state or non-state law and how such understandings matter to the ways in which they conceptualize themselves, their actions and feelings, and their dealings with others, such as customers and the police. An example of this kind of study is Margaret Boittin’s research, based on extensive interviews and observations, on sex workers in China. Another area is the study of legal mobilization – how people use the law to define, express, or make claims about their grievances. The legal precarity of sex work raises the question of whether sex workers turn to law, why (and why not), and in what ways. Among the three articles, Tanaka’s focus on activists perhaps more clearly relates to legal mobilization. But it is also possible to read the other two articles, by Kurosawa and Lin et al., as lending themselves to this kind of exploration. In Boittin’s study, for example, some interviewees talked about having basic rights, protested against government crackdowns, or called for the legalization of sex work. In short, the articles in this special-themed issue suggests the potential of doing law and society research on sex work in Asia, and I look forward to reading more about it in this Journal and other law and society publications.

我很荣幸获邀为《亚洲法律与社会杂志》关于性工作的首期专题讨论撰写前言。2015年创刊以来，该杂志已就宗教、发展、法律教育和法律意识等对亚洲法律和社会研究具有重要意义的主题发布专题特辑。在这一传统下，本期收录了三篇分别基于日本、台湾和尼泊尔三地有关性工作研究的文章。

在《超越“性工作”：日本的夜间工作（‘Night Work’）和社会经验（‘Shakai-Keiken’）”》一文中，Aki Kurosawa聚焦于“夜间工作” 展开研究，这是日本一种围绕饮酒和与客人交谈的性工作。作者在访谈和观察的基础上了解女大学生为什么要从事这一工作，她们如何定义“夜间工作”的性质以及她们从中获得了什么。

在《对台湾商业性行为的监管：从性别和法律角度的观察》一文中，Carol Lin等人分析了法律文件、历史资料以及二手文献，描绘了自清朝至当代，台湾对性工作进行规制和去规制的不同阶段。在文章的后半部分，作者们提出一种具有替代性的法律模型，以更好地赋予性工作者自主权以及对性工作者的保护。

在《性工作者的权利由尼泊尔关于身份的协会负责倡导》一文中，Masako Tanaka利用二手文献和报告，为我们呈现了尼泊尔性工作者的法律地位、性工作和性工作者的不同类型。基于与两个非营利组织中维权人士的访谈，她还描述了主张性工作者权利保障的两种不同路径。

尽管这三篇文章专注于各自研究地点的细节且采用不同的研究方法，但它们呈现出了对性工作的法律和社会研究中的一些共同主题。其一便是性工作的广泛含义。其中不同的法律对性工作有不同的定义，或者未予定义；而性工作者、性工作者的顾客及其它人对性工作也有不同的认识。性工作的含义会因所提供的服务类型或工作场所而不同，因此与国家法和非国家法（例如有关性行为和女性性倾向的社会规范和规则）的作用方式也不同。性工作对性工作者、性工作者的顾客群体、参与交易的其他行为者、维权人士以及执法部门也有不同的意义。因此，另一个主题是（关于性工作）合法性的持续挑战。这三篇文章表明，性工作者，无论他们在哪里，都面临国家法律的刑事定罪、当局的迫害或社会上其他群体的污名化。

这些关于性工作的多元意义以及持续的合法律性挑战都可以与更为广泛的法律与社会研究联系起来，尽管诸位作者自己没有明确建立这种联系。一个相关的研究领域是对法律意识的研究。这三篇文章都间接涉及到对性工作者（或Tanaka文中的维权人士）如何理解国家或非国家法律，以及这些理解以怎样的方式影响到他们对自身、他们的行为和感受的认识，以及他们与顾客和警察等人之间的交往。这种研究的一个例子是Margaret Boittin的作品，她基于大量的访谈和观察，对中国的性工作者进行了研究。另一个相关领域是对法律动员（legal mobilization）的研究——即人们如何使用法律来定义、表达或提出他们的不满。性工作者的困难处境提出了性工作者是否求助于法律、为什么（为什么不）以及以什么方式求助于法律等问题。在这三篇文章中，Tanaka对维权人士的关注也许更明确地与法律动员有关。但是，Kurosawa和Lin等人的另外两篇文章同样可以被读作是这样探索的一部分。比如说在Boittin的研究中，一些受访者谈到拥有基本权利、抗议政府的镇压或呼吁性工作合法化。简言之，本期专题期刊上的文章表明了在亚洲进行与性工作相关的法律和社会研究的潜力。我期待着在本期刊和其他的法律和社会出版物中阅读更多有关这一问题的文章。

Beyond “Sex Work”: Japanese Night Work and “Shakai-Keiken”

超越“性工作”：日本夜间工作和社会经验

作者：Aki KUROSAWA，加利福尼亚大学圣克鲁兹分校研究生

摘要：This article rethinks the hegemonic “sex-work” discourses—popular sex-work discourse and radical-feminist discourse—that associate Japanese night work with prostitution and consider young women workers in this industry as victims. These discourses reinforce sex-work oppression–empowerment paradigms, which limit workers’ experiences to either oppressive/empowering, good/bad, and positive/negative. This research draws on transnational feminism and a polymorphous approach to the complex nature of sex work. In doing so, this article addresses three aspects of Japanese night work, including young Japanese women’s motivation to go into night work, their conceptualization of work they engage in, and shakai-keiken (social experience) that they gain out of doing night work. This article encourages readers to step away from dominant Western discourses and look closely at the nuanced nature of Japanese night work in its own context.

本文重新思考了有关“性工作”的支配性话语，这套话语体系包括常见的性工作话语及激进的女权主义话语，它将日本的夜间工作与卖淫联系在一起，并以“受害者”身份推定该行业中的年轻女性工作者。这些话语加强了性工作中压迫–赋权二分的传统模式，将性工作者们的经历局限为压迫与赋权，善与恶，积极与消极的对立。这项研究借鉴了跨国女权主义并对性工作的复杂性采取了多形态处理办法。由此，本文致力于包括日本夜间工作的三个方面，包括年轻日本女性的夜间工作动机，对其工作如何概念化，以及其从中汲取的社会经验（shakai-keiken）。本文鼓励读者摆脱西方主流话语的支配，细致研究日本夜间工作在其自身语境中的细微差别。

Policing and Regulating Commercial Sex in Taiwan: A Review from Gender, Culture and Legal Perspectives

台湾商业性性交易的监管和规范：从性别、文化和法律视角的评论

作者：Chih-Chieh (Carol) LIN，国立交通大学特聘教授；Fang-Yi SU，Lin & Partner律师；Ping-Hsuan CHUNG，国立交通大学法学硕士研究生

摘要：Commercial sex has been a complex and controversial issue in Taiwan. It was banned several times and finally partially legalized in law when the Congress finally amended Article 80 of the Social Order Maintenance Law and authorized local governments to establish red-light districts. Unfortunately, in reality, until now, no local government has established a red-light district. Therefore, all commercial sex is still illegal in Taiwan. By reviewing this issue from gender, culture, and legal perspectives, this paper discusses the regulation of commercial sex in Taiwan in three parts. In the first part, this paper provides a historical view of the development of commercial sex and how the government regulated it in different periods. In the second part, this paper introduces the debate and various perspectives of feminist legal theories on this issue. Finally, compared with the regulation models of Japan and Singapore, this paper proposes an empowerment approach in response to the current Social Order Maintenance Law. Focusing on sex workers’ autonomy and subjectivity, the new approach hopes to balance the interests between the rights of sex workers and the needs of social order and public health.

商业性性交易在台湾一直是一个复杂而有争议的问题。该行为屡被禁止，在立法院最后修订《社会秩序维护法》第80条并授权地方政府设立红灯区后才最终在法律中被部分合法化。遗憾的是，在现实中，目前为止尚无地方政府设立红灯区。因此，所有的商业性性交易在台湾仍是不合法的。通过从性别、文化和法律的角度对于该问题进行回顾，本文分三个部分对台湾商业性性交易的监管进行了探讨。在第一部分中，本文对商业性性交易的发展以及政府在不同时期如何对其进行监管提供了一个历史视角。在第二部分中，本文介绍了女权主义法学理论在这一问题上的争论和各种观点。最后，通过与日本和新加坡的监管模式进行比较，本文提出了一种用以回应现行《社会秩序维护法》的赋权方法。该新方法着眼于性交易服务者的自主性和主观性，以期能够平衡性交易服务者的权利与社会秩序和公共卫生的需要之间的利益。

Advocating Sex Workers’ Rights by Identity-Based Associations in Nepal

性工作者的权利由尼泊尔关于身份的协会负责倡导

作者：Masako TANAKA，上智大学全球研究研究院教授

摘要：There is no specific law in Nepal that directly criminalizes sex work. However, many sex workers have experienced arbitrary detention by law-enforcement authorities. The Human Trafficking and Transportation (Control) Act, 2007 (HTTCA) criminalizes pimps and clients, but not sex workers directly. However, the Act was overinclusive and often criminalized women engaged in voluntary sex work.

The new Criminal (Code) Act 2017 criminalizes advertising and providing facilities for sex work in the section concerning crimes against the public good. These laws are used to prosecute sex workers. Two identity-based associations (IBAs) emphasize the importance of decriminalization, but do not support the legalization of sex work. A licensing system, if introduced under legalization, may exclude the most vulnerable sex workers, including housewives, migrants, and sexual minorities, who are secretly engaged in the business. I conclude that ongoing advocacy of IBAs should seek to provide safe working environments for sex workers in Nepal.

在尼泊尔,没有专门的法律将性工作定为犯罪。但是，许多的性工作者却受到执法部门的任意拘留。2007年，《贩卖运输人口（管控）法》（HTTCA）将皮条客及嫖客定为犯罪，但没有对个人性工作者定性。该法案过于概括，导致经常将自愿从事性工作的妇女定为犯罪。

2017年新的《刑法典》（Criminal（Code）Act）在涉及危害公共利益章节中把宣传性工作的行为和为性工作提供设施的行为定为犯罪。这些法律条文被用来起诉性工作者。有两个基于身份的协会（IBAs）强调了去犯罪化的重要性，但也不支持性工作的合法化。若以合法化为前提引入许可制度，可能会把最脆弱的性工作者群体，包括秘密从事此行业交易的家庭主妇，移民妇女和性少数群体排除在外。作者的结论是那些协会或团体，应不断提倡为尼泊尔的性工作者提供更安全的工作环境。

Legal Governance on Fintech Risks: Effects and Lessons from China

金融科技风险的法律治理：中国的影响与经验

作者：Kang YUAN，武汉大学助理教授；Duoqi XU，复旦大学经济法学教授

摘要：Fintech risks have a special type of structure and formation mechanism; regular updates and a complete financial legal system are needed to implement an effective legal governance. China’s fintech development is leading the world, but its lagging legal development does not match its rank in the field. Due to the difficult co-ordination of regulatory goals, unclear allocation of regulatory power, insufficient risk identification, and incomplete regulation tools, China’s legal governance on fintech risks has been swinging between the paths of suppressive, indulging, and adaptive regulation. It is urgently necessary to follow the fintech-risk law and fully tap into the local resources and explore the intervening path with more proactivity, foresight, and refined characteristics, through specification of the legal status and governing power of the intervening entity, the institutional basis and legal effect of interventional means, and the governing key and constitutional rules of intervening objects, to establish a legal-governance system on fintech risks that is innovation-friendly, regulatorily effective, and safe at the bottom line, fully covering the whole process.

金融科技风险具有特殊的结构和形成机制。要实施有效的法律治理需要定期的更新和完善的金融法律体系。中国的金融科技发展领先于世界，但滞后的法律建设与其在该领域的地位不相匹配。由于监管目标难以统筹、监管权力分配不明确、风险识别能力不足、监管手段不完备的原因，中国对金融科技风险的法律治理一直在压制性监管、放任性监管和适应性监管的路径之间摇摆。亟需遵循金融科技风险法律，充分挖掘本土资源，通过规范介入主体的法律地位和治理权力、介入手段的制度基础和法律效力、介入对象的治理关键和宪法规则，探索更具主动性、前瞻性和精细化特征的介入路径，建立创新友好、监管有效、底线安全、全面覆盖的金融科技风险法律治理体系。

Concealed Risks of FinTech and Goal-Oriented Responsive Regulation: China’s Background and Global Perspective

金融科技的隐形风险与目标导向的响应式监管：中国背景与全球视角

作者：Donggen XU，上海交通大学教授；Dawei XU，上海证券交易所经济学家

摘要：This article provides critical and analytical views on legal regulation to achieve a balance between FinTech innovation, risk prevention, and financial stability, by focusing on the trend of FinTech firms entering the financial-services industry and the associated regulatory and legal challenges that are already arising in China. It adopts a balanced approach as a theoretical-analysis perspective, weighing various considerations, and proposes the policy option of FinTech regulation under the principle of interest balance. The analysis aims to contribute new insights to an ongoing debate in China on the relationship between legal and regulatory reform, FinTech innovation, and risk prevention. This article argues that legal challenges, rather than technical problems, remain the key obstacles to effective FinTech regulation. Our proposed hypothesis seeks to explain how a legal regulation achieves balancing the competing interests between FinTech innovation, risk prevention, and financial stability in the booming of China’s FinTech. Finally, this article proposes the implementation of goal-oriented responsive regulation by improving the legal framework of FinTech regulatory regimes through policy option.

本文密切关注金融科技公司进军金融服务行业的趋势及中国境内已经出现的相关监管和法律挑战，由此提供关于法律法规的批判性和分析性观点，进而实现金融科技创新、风险防控及金融稳定之间的平衡。它采用了一种综合平衡法作为理论分析的视角，即权衡了多种考虑因素，并基于利益平衡的原则提出了金融科技监管的若干政策选择。该分析旨在为中国当前有关法律与监管改革、金融科技创新以及风险防控的辩论提供新的观点。本文认为，有效金融科技监管的主要障碍并非技术问题，而是法律挑战。我们提出的假说旨在解释中国金融科技蓬勃发展的过程中，法律法规如何能协调金融科技创新、风险防控及金融稳定，从而在众多竞争性利益之间达成平衡。最后，本文主张通过政策选取来改善金融科技监管制度的法律框架，从而履行面向目标的响应式监管措施。

The Risks of Mobile Payment and Regulatory Responses: A Hong Kong Perspective

香港视角下的移动支付风险和监管对策

作者：Robin Hui HUANG，香港中文大学法学教授；Cynthia SzeWai CHEUNG，香港中文大学研究员；Christine Meng Lu WANG，香港中文大学法学博士候选人

摘要：Mobile payment generally refers to transactions made through the applications of a portable electronic gadget without the transfer of cash. As one of the most disruptive technologies for finance, mobile payment has been rapidly transforming the traditional financial industry. While it brings important benefits, there are also various risks, in terms of liquidity, security, and data privacy, that call for adequate regulatory responses. As a global financial centre, Hong Kong has gradually established a regulatory framework for mobile payment, addressing the relevant risks with rules on payment and privacy. However, there is still room for further improvement, in terms of measures to deal with cybersecurity issues and strengthen the protection of personal data. The Hong Kong experiences suggest that, to regulate a new and fast-growing industry such as mobile payment, the regulatory regime needs to be improved continuously to alleviate the risk concerns, so as to enhance the protection of financial consumers and society at large.

移动支付一般是指不转移现金而通过便携式电子设备的应用程序进行的交易。作为最具颠覆性的金融技术之一，移动支付正在迅速改变传统的金融业。虽然它带来了重要的好处，但在流动性、安全性和数据隐私方面也存在着各种风险，需要充足的监管回应。作为全球金融中心，香港已逐步建立了移动支付监管框架，用支付和隐私规则来处理相关风险。然而，在处理网络安全问题和加强个人数据保护的措施方面仍有进一步改善的空间。香港的经验表明，为了监管诸如移动支付的新兴且快速发展的行业，需要持续完善监管制度以缓解风险隐忧，从而加强对金融消费者和全社会的保护。

Internet (Un)Immunity: Where Does China Stand?

互联网豁免权：中国应有什么立场？

作者：Jie (Jeanne) HUANG，悉尼大学法学院副教授

摘要：This paper focuses on Internet intermediaries’ civil liabilities for contents produced by third parties. By comparing Chinese law with the laws of the US and EU, it argues that the US law grants broad civil immunity to Internet intermediaries, and the EU and China restrict civil immunity to intermediaries but in different ways. This is on account of how, in the US, Internet intermediaries enjoy civil immunity as long as they do not become content providers. In the EU, aside from mere conduit intermediaries, all other intermediaries are subject to the notice-and-take-down mechanism before enjoying civil immunity. In contrast, in China, even after an intermediary properly follows the notice-and-take-down mechanism, it may still be subject to civil liability under the Chinese Consumer Law. Further, this paper argues that the policy priority for the law for Internet intermediaries varies fundamentally in the three jurisdictions.

The US law for intermediaries’ liability focuses on protecting freedom of speech. The EU emphasizes the protection of personal information as a fundamental human right. Contrastingly, Chinese policy priority is unclear. Consumer protection has boomed in public popularity and increasingly attracted the attentions of the legislature and judiciary in China. However, it is doubtable that the protection of consumers can provide a prevailing policy support for Chinese law in the same way as freedom of speech and the protection of personal information do under the laws of the US and the EU, respectively.

本文将着重于讨论互联网中介机构对第三方产生的内容所负有的民事责任。通过比较中国、美国和欧盟的立法，本观点认为美国的法律赋予了互联网中介机构更广泛的民事豁免权，而欧盟和中国则在不同方面对中介机构的民事豁免权进行了限制。这样说是因为在美国互联网中介机构只要不成为内容提供者，他们便能一直享有民事豁免权。而在欧盟，除了“纯管道”服务提供者外，所有其他中介机构在享受民事豁免之前均受到“通知移除”制度的管制。相比之下在中国即使中介机构遵循了“通知移除”制度，根据中国的《消费者保护法》他们仍可能要承担民事责任。本文进一步认为，在规制互联网中介机构规制时的政策优先级上，三个法域具有根本性的不同。美国的法律对中介机构的责任认定重点在保护其言论自由。而欧盟则强调保护个人信息是一项基本人权。比较而言，中国的立法目的尚不清晰。消费者保护在社会公众那里日益普及并且在更多地引起中国立法机关和司法机构的关注。但令人怀疑的是，对消费者的保护是否真地能为中国法提供言论自由之于美国、个人信息之于欧盟那样的主要政策支撑点。

The Limits to Law: How Intellectual Properties Are Used and Protected in Chinese Industries

法律的局限性：如何使用知识产权制度保护中国的产业

作者：Qiaoling HE，麦吉尔大学助理研究员

摘要：Many studies agree that a weak intellectual property right (IPR) legal system likely reduces innovation or creation; they also predict that increasing intellectual properties (IPs) in developing countries will automatically lead to local needs for stronger formal protection. However, the situation is found to be more complex in China. With a focus on the use of IPs and relevant protection mechanisms in China, this study points out that many companies acquire IPs for purposes that do not depend on their enforcement; many companies have informal ways of protecting their IPs without resorting to court enforcement. Both the alternative functions and the alternative enforcement mechanisms are shaped by industrial characteristics, especially in four aspects: technological features, administrative regulation, market characteristics, and network structure. Based on studies of different industrial sectors in China, this article develops a general framework for analyzing the role of IPRs in industrial practice.

许多研究认为，薄弱的知识产权(IPR)法律制度可能会减少创新或创造；它们还预测，发展中国家知识产权(IPs)的增加将自然而然为国内带来更有力的正式保护的需要。然而，中国的情况更为复杂。本研究以中国知识产权的使用和相关保护机制为重点，指出许多公司获取知识产权的目的并不依赖于知识产权的强制执行；许多公司有非正式的方式保护其知识产权，而不诉诸法院强制执行。替代性功能和替代性执法机制的形成受到了产业特征的影响，尤其是在技术特征、行政监管、市场特征和网络结构四个方面。本文在对中国不同产业部门研究的基础上，形成了一个分析知识产权在产业实践中的角色的总体框架。